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Climate change as environmental and economic hazard Part 8

Môi trường là nơi cung cấp các nhu cầu về tài nguyên cho con người như đất, đá, tre, nứa, tài nguyên sinh vật. Tất cả các tài nguyên này đều do môi trường cung cấp và giá trị của tài nguyên phụ thuộc và mức độ khan hiếm và giá trị của nó trong xã hội. | 220 Botzen and van den Bergh a price signal for risk and promoting the undertaking of mitigation measures Kunreuther 1996 Botzen and van den Bergh 2008 . A necessary condition for this is that insurance premiums reflect the risk faced by the insured property Kun-reuther et al. 2008 . Risk-based insurance premiums could act as a price signal for settling in an area and thus stimulate development in less risky areas and restrain development in hazard-prone areas since premiums would be higher in the latter. Moreover insurance can provide incentives to homeowners to invest in measures that mitigate damage. This is very relevant since practical experience shows that although mitigation measures could be useful to manage risks individuals rarely undertake them Kunreuther 2006a . Insurance can require the undertaking of mitigation in policy conditions or reward insured who invest in mitigation measures with premium discounts or increased levels of coverage e.g. Klein-dorfer and Kunreuther 1999 Kunreuther and Pauly 2006 Botzen et al. 2009c . Further research could explore whether such economic incentives are effective in encouraging investments that mitigate damage. Several characteristics of natural disaster risk complicate insurance in pure private markets Freeman and Kunreuther 2003 . The low-probability nature of natural hazard risk makes it difficult to assess the frequency of hazards and resulting damage and to determine adequate premiums. Catastrophe models may aid rate setting by insurers but involve uncertainties too. Moreover natural hazards are correlated and impacts can be very large so that insurees may face many losses when a disaster occurs that could be beyond the capacity of insurers to reimburse. For these reasons public-private partnerships in covering natural disaster risks could be explored in which governments cover part of the extreme tail of the loss distribution Kunreuther 2006b Michel-Kerjan and de Marcellis-Warin 2006 Botzen and van den Bergh .