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The appearance of digital computers and the development of modern theories of learning and neural processing both occurred at about the same time, during the late 1940s. Since that time, the digital computer has been used as a tool to model individual neurons as well as clusters of neurons, which are called neural networks. A large body of neurophysiological research has accumulated since then. For a good review of this research, see Neural and Brain Modeling by Ronald J. MacGregor [21]. The study of artificial neural systems (ANS) on computers remains an active field of biomedical research | Ễ COMPUTATION AND NEURAL SYSTEMS SERIES SERIES EDITOR Christof Koch California Institute ofTechnology EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD MEMBERS Dana Anderson University of Colorado Boulder Michael Arbib University of Southern California Dana Ballard University ofRochester James Bower California Institute ofTechnology Gerard Dreyfus Eeoìe Superieure de Physique el de Chimie Industrielles de la Ville de Paris Rolf Eckmiller University of Dusseldorf Kunihiko Fukushima Osaka University Walter Heiligenberg Scripps Institute of Oceanography La Jolla Shaul Hochstein Hebrew University Jerusalem Alan Lapedes Los Alamos National Laboratory Carver Mead California Institute of Technology Guy Orban Catholic University of Leuven Haim Sompolinsky Hebrew University Jerusalem John Wyatt Jr. Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology The series editor Dr. Christof Koch is Assistant Professor of Computation and Neural Systems at the California Institute of Technology. Dr. Koch works at both the biophysical level investigating information processing in single neurons and in networks such as the visual cortex as well as studying and implementing simple resistive networks for computing motion stereo and color in biological and artificial systems. Neural Networks Algorithms Applications and Programming Techniques James A. Freeman David M. Skapura Loral Space Information Systems and Adjunct Faculty School of Natural and Applied Sciences University of Houston at Clear Lake TV Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Reading Massachusetts Menlo Park California New York Don Mills Ontario Wokingham England Amsterdam Bonn Sydney Singapore Tokyo Madrid San juan Milan Paris Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Freeman James A. Neural networks algorithms applications and programming techniques James A. Freeman and David M. Skapura. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-201-51376-5 1. Neural networks Computer science 2. Algorithms. I. Skapura David M. II. Title. QA76.87.F74 1991 .